The Hidden Drivers of Primary School Dropout: Teacher Absenteeism, Corporal Punishment, and Community Barriers in Rural Nigeria

Abstract

Nigeria has an estimated 10.5 million out-of-school children, the highest of any country, with the majority in the northern region. While considerable research exists on why children never enroll, less is known about why those who do enroll eventually drop out. This study investigated school-level and community-level factors perceived by teachers as drivers of primary school dropout in Gwadabawa Educational Zone, Sokoto State, one of Nigeria’s most disadvantaged areas. A cross-sectional survey of 316 primary school teachers across 21 schools was conducted using a validated 20-item questionnaire (Cronbach’s α = 0.865 for the dropout scale). Teachers rated their agreement with statements about school-based factors (teacher absenteeism, supervision quality, instructional materials, corporal punishment) and community-based factors (school distance, early marriage, poverty). Enrollment and retention data from school registers were also analyzed. Pearson correlations and t tests were used to examine relationships. Teacher absenteeism was the most strongly perceived driver of dropout (89.5% agreement; mean = 3.50/4.00), followed by irregular teacher attendance (87.0%; mean = 3.39) and poor supervision (86.7%; mean = 3.34). Corporal punishment received the lowest rating among dropout factors (64.9% agreement; mean = 2.81). A strong positive correlation was found between school-based factors and dropout (r = 0.830, p < 0.001), while early marriage showed strong negative correlations with both enrollment (r = -0.774, p = 0.029) and retention (r = -0.651, p = 0.023). No significant gender differences in perceptions were observed (t = 0.220, p = 0.826). The findings suggest that primary school dropout in rural northern Nigeria is driven more by school-based failures—particularly teacher absenteeism and poor supervision—than by household factors. Addressing dropout requires improving teacher accountability and school functioning while simultaneously engaging communities on issues such as early marriage.